Anti-Italian American Prejudice and Discrimination

Anti-Italian American Prejudice and Discrimination Mezzogiorno Nearly three-fourths of all Italian immigrants to the United States came from the southernmost provinces of Italy. Known as Il Mezzogiorno, it was the countrys most impoverished region, with the illiteracy rate at a staggering 70 percent in 1900, and longstanding oppression from Italys Northern-dominated government. Southern Italian economy relied on agriculture, but natural disasters of volcano eruptions and earthquakes in the early 20th century devastated what little cultivatable land there was (Mintz, 2007). Unable to sustain tolerable living conditions, most became migrant workers. Between the years of 1876 and 1924, nearly 5 million Italians arrived in the United States (Pozzetta, 2008). About one-fourth remained in New York City, while more than half settled in the middle Atlantic states and New EnglandMany Italian immigrants had no plans of establishing permanent homes in the United States. Most were young men who left behind their wives and children with hopes of brief absenc e-they would find employment, collect their pay, and return home. They lived prudently in conditions that were regarded as intolerable by ordinary American families (Mintz, 2007). Commonly working unskilled jobs in construction and public development, roughly half of the Italian immigrant population in the early 1900s was made up of manual laborers (Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia, 2009). Although the United States appealed to emigrating Italians as the best prospective destination to find work, Gambino (2002) asserts that American industry sought immigrants to replace the emancipated slave class. Many Italian immigrants in the North took positions in sweatshops and factories, while others were recruited to work on Southern plantations where slave labor had since been abolished (LaGumina, 1999). However, those in larger urban areas often found dominance in skilled artisan trades they had once practiced in Italy, such as shoemaking, tailoring, and barbering (Pozzetta, 2008). Th ough still generally confined to a lower class, many Italian immigrants found solidarity in highly concentrated ethnic neighborhoods (Mangione Morreale, 1993). Little Italies The emergence of Little Italies was prompted in large part by the intolerance and hostility that Italian immigrants faced in mainstream American society (Pozzetta, 2008). A working class minority that was defined by some as not quite white (Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia, 2009), or the missing link between black and white (Borsella, 2005), they often faced discrimination in housing opportunities. Italian immigrants themselves were slow to seek assimilation because traditionally, la famiglia (the family) and lordine della famiglia (the rules of behavior and responsibility to the family) came before any affiliation with a larger-scale community (Mintz, 2007). This resistance began to fade as subsequent generations strayed from the strict codes of their parents. With the dawn of World War II, more than 500,000 Italian Americans served in the U.S. military, proving to many that their loyalties to the country were strong. By the 1950s it seemed that Italian immigrants, now secure i n identifying as Italian Americans, had found a true home in the United States (Pozzetta, 2008). Anti-Italian prejudice however, though less pronounced, still endured. Dating back to the early 20th century and the apex of the groups immigration, society and popular culture have attached a number of stereotypes to Italian Americans. Arguably the most distinctive stereotype is that of association with La Cosa Nostra, or the American Mafia (Pozzetta, 2008). Released in 1972, the critically-acclaimed and wildly popular film The Godfather became the archetype of Hollywoods Mafia movie industry, depicting Italian Americans as ruthless criminals, a label that had long vilified their ethnic identity. Many Italian Americans, after having fought the stereotype for decades, came to embrace the Mafia image that had captivated American moviegoers and provided a highly profitable new avenue for filmmakers. The 1990s introduced the film Goodfellas (1990) and the television series The Sopranos (199 9), both of which reinforced the hardcore gangster image (Borsella, 2005). Other predominant Italian American stereotypes in film and television often still include the feisty young woman with a taste for gaudy fashion, the lovable womanizer, and the overweight matriarch with excessive jewelry and a pot of spaghetti (Pozzetta, 2008). Nonnina Although I identify more with American culture in my everyday life, I do embrace my Italian American heritage.In some sense, I connect with my roots in an Americanized way, and I have no problem in laughing at the some of the stereotypes that accompany it. A few mob movies are actually among my favorites. Though I know authentic Italian cuisine, I do enjoy eating at Olive Garden and ordering deliveries from Pizza Hut once in a while.I still call my grandmother Nonni, which is short for nonnina, a term affectionately meaning little grandmother.

Matav Hungarian Telecommunications Company Essay

Matav Hungarian Telecommunications Company was established in 1991 when Hungarian Post was split into three divisions. Matav remained a state-run company until 1993 when the Hungarian government sold off the company , and that was a significant turning point in the history of the company since the privatization process was the largest foreign investment in Hungary. Matav’s majority shareholder , Deutsche Telekom was one of the largest Telecommunications companies in Europe, and was involved in all kinds of Telecommunication Business Services. Therefore , Matav benefited from the technical expertise of Deutsche Telekom , and became a fully integrated Telecommunications company. Even the culture of the corporation had changed into a customer-oriented culture after the privatization process. In February 1994 , Matav’s local telephone services covered about 80% of the territory of Hungary. After it had been privatized from the state in 1993, Matav had a monopoly inside Hungary in a way that it operated 80 % of the country’s fixed line telephone system. But there were four other domestic incumbents that controlled the fixed lines in the remaining 20% of the country ( HTCC , Monortel , Emitel and Invitel ) . So , Matav had some kind of competitive advantages in its domestic markets. Also , In mobile market , for instance , Matav controlled about 47% of the market , but was in a competition with two other companies : Pannon GSM (owned by TeleNor ) with 37 % of the market , and Vodafone with 16% . Tele2 and MonorTel were also being so active in the segment. Moreover , there was a great deal of competition between the fixed line business segment and the mobile segment.As for the internet segment , the ISP Axelero had Pantel ( owned by KPN , Holland ) as an active competitor. As part of its successful strategy, Matav was trying to become an international telecommunications group , and its first international expansion was in 2001 through purchasing the majority share of MakTel , Macedonia’s national telecommunications company. So as a result , MakTel became a consolidated subsidiary of Matav. Matav’s first international acquisition of MakTel was a real success as the domestic fixed line business was declining. Also , in July 2001 , Matav purchased the remaining 50% ownership share in Emitel, and Emitel became a new subsidiary of Matav group that provided residential and business telecommunication services in the South region. In December 2001 , Matav acquired the remaining 49% share of Westel Mobile Telecommunications ( which was known later as T-Mobile Hungary Co. ). In January 2002 , a new strategic plan introduced a new company structure , and Matav was restructured into four business lines : Business services , residential services , Mobile division and Internet division. The restructure plan was necessary as each business area needed a dedicated management team. In fact , international expansion was of great strategic importance to Matav . The first international acquisition of MakTel in early 2001 was a great strategic opportunity as the penetration in Macedonia was being very low in almost all business segments : 25% of the country had fixed lines , 5% of the country had mobile phones , and under 2% had the internet service. So , Matav’s main task was to rebalance the pricing of the fixed line business through the tariff packages and others , and to grow competition on the mobile market. MakTel revenues had grown from the year 2000 to 2003 , and the key measure that was used by Matav ( EBITDA : Earnings before interest , tax , deprec iation and Amortization ) also raised. In addition , Matav increased the number of MakTel’s fixed lines. In December 2003 , the connection of ADSL lines and other broadband services became available. And since January 2004, the Electronic Communication Act entered into force, and it allowed the fixed-line number portability in Hungary. Although it was becoming an international company , Matav lacked the dynamic growth, and that was because there was a limited growth opportunity in Hungary. For instance , fixed line subscriptions were declining because of the the fixed-mobile substitution. Consequently , Matav was looking forward into its second international expansion , and that was the international acquisition of Montenegro Telecom ( TCG ) that was sold off by the government in March 2005 . Basically , Matav chose Montenegro because it was the only fixed operator in the country , and it had one mobile competitor. In 2004 , Matav had to develop a strategy plan for the entire company, and the management team was to choose between the multiple strategic crossroads in the complex and the rapidly changing telecommunications business environment. The strategy group leader , Andras Balogh , had to choose a reliable strategy plan for the next three years. Basically , the strategy group had three main options for Matav. The first choice was to focus on the existing product lines. For example , the company could maximize productivity , provide new services , produce more tariff packages in order to limit the fixed lines business declining, in addition to managing the pricing on new mobile services ( GPRS , 3G , WAP†¦and all Broadband services ). The second choice was to focus on the regional growth, and the third one was to keep expanding internationally. If I were a member of the strategy group , I would recommend the international expansion strategic direction, but I do believe that some requirements should be met, and one of those requirements would be the guaranteed existing of sufficient company resources that would guarantee a healthy future of the company. In addition , I think that the international expansion would compensate the lack of dynamic growth that Matav lacked in Hungary . †¢ What has been the impact, positive and negative, of the Internet on the way we do business? †¢ What is his future vision of the Internet and the way it will evolve? †¢ What challenges and concerns do we face for the future? Since this is a position paper, not only present the speaker’s points but analyze them and add your considered opinion about them. Examples and perspective to support your viewpoint are strongly welcomed. It is recommended that your write-up should be between one and two pages long (single spaced, 11 pt.) Please submit your assignment electronically via Blackboard by class time on Tuesday September 25th.

Getting Into the Mind of a Late Medieval Peasant Essay

Getting Into the Mind of a Late Medieval Peasant The middle Ages were dark and gloomy. People lived in castles and rode on horses. They constantly fought each other with swords and shields. That mainly sums up the Middle Ages, right a world with no technology sounds almost horrifying. However, there were many forms of â€Å"Medieval Technology.† Of course they didn’t have electricity or batteries in the middle Ages, but that’s not all technology is. Technology is the application of science, especially in industry or commerce. So basically, anything that improves or makes life easier is a form of technology. With that in mind, the invention of those swords, shields, and castles of the middle†¦show more content†¦Hence, the windmill and water mill of the middle Ages were very important industrial advancements. Medieval Industrial Technology has also been characterized by many agricultural improvements. Medieval farmers used the heavy plough to loosen soil for seed planting. It originated in Asia Minor, but was later used in Northern Europe. These ploughs were normally mounted on two wheels, and pulled by several horses or oxen. The heavy plough was also used to rid uncultivated land of weeds and other vegetation. Even though it did not destroy most plant root systems, it did expose them to the air, which inhibited their growth. The â€Å"ditches† created by the plough also slowed erosion caused by heavy rains. Before the heavy plough, most medieval farmers used a â€Å"lighter† plough. Unlike the heavy plough, horses and oxen did not pull the light plough. This was a major difference in the effectiveness of the light plough. The horse collar or horse harness was only used with the heavy plough. The collar puts the workload on the horse’s shoulders instead of the back or neck, such as in earlier models. The horse collar allowed horses to use more power without straining their necks or backs. Medieval Farming benefited immensely from these two important, agricultural inventions. Medieval Construction and building also benefited from the invention of the horse collar. TheShow MoreRelatedFrench Literacy Dbq Essay6211 Words   |  25 Pagesthat promoted or discouraged the spread of literacy. Analysis of fourteen documents for the DBQ â€Å"Literacy in France† essay question: Document # 1: Document # 1 was a comparison of the degree of literacy in France between the seventeenth and late eighteenth century as well as between men and women. During the reign of Louis XIV (1638 – 1715), focusing on the years from 1686 to 1690, merely more than forty percent of the French men were literate in the northern parts of the country (around ParisRead MoreStalin vs. Trotsky Essay3293 Words   |  14 Pagesthe hut in which he was born is preserved by a temple-like structure erected over it. As a boy he attended a church school in Gori and then the theological seminary in Tiflis. Today the seminary has been converted into a museum of medieval Georgian art. Young Joseph joined a Marxist society known as Mesame-Dasi while a student at the seminary, but it is not clear whether this had anything to do with his expulsion in 1899. During the next two years his Marxism crystallizedRead MoreNovels and Words: Notes2094 Words   |  9 Pagesdenote co-eternal binary opposition, a meaning that is preserved in metaphysical and philosophical duality discourse but has been diluted in general or common usages. Dualism can refer to moral dualism, (e.g. the conflict between good and evil), mind-body or mind-matter dualism (e.g. Cartesian Dualism) or physical dualism (e.g. the Chinese Yin and Yang). Dualism holds to the belief that there are two elements of existence: Physical and Spiritual. Cave Is a natural underground space large enough forRead Moresociology4813 Words   |  20 Pagesstrong grip of caste system started getting loose with the introduction of cash crops and also many land reform policies that was introduced to work in favor of the british. these reforms consequentely gave rise to a different class structure in the agragrian society. the zamindars now had full ownership right on the land whereas the peasants who had been actually cultivating the land became tenants of the new landlords. the changes led to indebtness among the peasants and the moneylenders and big landownersRead MoreCauses in the Rise of Italian Fascism: 1870 to 1922 Essay2980 Words   |  12 Pagesmostly rural and agricultural, with 60% of the population working, or more accurately existing, on the land. (Lintner, 2001, p.173) Agriculture was thus an important factor to consider for the countrys subsistence, but it was badly suffering from medieval methods, and deep differences of soil fert ility between the regions. Predictably, the most advanced farming was found in the North. In the South, the deforestation of the last century had all but drained the soil of its fertility, and share-croppersRead MoreInstitution as the Fundamental Cause of Long Tern Growth39832 Words   |  160 Pagespower, which itself has two sources. First, it depends on the ability of the group in question to solve its collective action problem, i.e., to ensure that people act together, even when any individual may have an incentive to free ride. For example, peasants in the Middle Ages, who were given no political power by the constitution, could sometimes solve the collective action problem and undertake a revolt against the authorities. Second, the de facto power of a group depends on its economic resourcesRead MoreThe Rise and Rule of Single-Party States7795 Words   |  32 Pages1919. †¢ Occupation of Fiume. In September 1919, a volunteer force led by the poet Gabrielle DAnnunzio took over Fiume. They were not driven out until January 1921. †¢ Soviets began establishing Soviets in 1920. Workers took over 600 factories. †¢ Peasants began simply taking land. Paragraph: Mussolini’s background †¢ Mussolini was the son of a blacksmith, and actively involved in Politics. †¢ Editor of the Avanti, an official socialist newspaper. †¢ Fought in the war, but was hurt in an army trainingRead MoreKnowledge Management and People7149 Words   |  29 Pagesonly from strength. One cannot build performance on weaknesses, let alone on something one cannot do at all. Throughout history, people had little need to know their strengths. A person was born into a position and a line of work: The peasant s son wouid also be a peasant; the artisan s daughter, an artisan s wife; and so on. But now people have choices. We need to know our strengths in order to know where we belong. HARVARD BUSINESS REVIEW Success in the knowledge economy comes to those who knowRead MoreThe Historical Transformation of Work14383 Words   |  58 Pagesgathering Gardening Farming Manufacturing Services (and information processing) Early modern period Late modern period Pre-modern period Hunting and gathering 40,000 BP + to 10,000 (i.e., ‘Stone Age’) (or 8,000 BP) Horticultural Agrarian Industrial capitalist Post-industrial/ Informational/Global capitalism Note: BP: 10,000 BP to 5,000 (or 3,000 BP) 5,000 BP BP to late 18th century 19th and 20th centuries Late 20th century and early 21st century Before the present. Source: Pre-modern and early modernRead MoreA Picatrix Miscellany52019 Words   |  209 PagesZiel des Weisen von Pseudo-Magriti, Translated into German from the Arabic by Hellmut Ritter and Martin Plessner, London, The Warburg Institute, University of London, 1962 French B. Bakhouche, F. Fauquier, B. Pà ©rez-Jean: Picatrix Un traità © de magie mà ©dià ©val. 388 p., 130 x 210 mm, 2003, Paperback ISBN 2-503-51068-X, EUR 37.91. Newest critical edition. French S. Matton, La magie arabe traditionelle, Paris, 1977 (incomplete) Latin Picatrix: The Latin Version of the Ghà ¢yat Al-Hakà ®m, ed. David Pingree

Campus Size And Its Impact On Student s Education

Many teenagers, especially those who are preparing for college, don’t fully understand the differences between and public and private university. They don’t realize that they are quite some similarities between the two, but also have different characteristics that distinguish them apart. Public universities, like ASU, are known for having a higher acceptance rate, but could not always be good since they’re not precise on what students they accept. Private university Lake Forest College, who has higher academic requirements, might have a better college experience then those at a public university. Although both public and private universities are very similar, they still contrast in campus size, diversity among the students, and tuition†¦show more content†¦With a school with about 40,000 students, classroom size is dramatically affected. Classroom size at ASU ranges from 30-50 students depending on the class. This grants a lack of communication between the student and professor. Having good communication with a professor is the key to success in college. Lake Forest College, which is a small university, currently has a campus size of 107 acres. This is great because it means that transportation is better, and it’s not big enough to house thousands of students. The Lake Forest campus is a compact and not spread around in a city like ASU. This makes it easier for the students to get around campus, and to not worry about paying for expensive parking. With a student population with about 1,500 students, the average class size is 19 students. This is great because there you won’t be just a â€Å"number†, but an actual person. Student diversity in both a public and private are pretty diverse. Of course at a campus like ASU there is going to be more people with different ethnicity. White race dominates the school when it comes to the student population. ASU ranges from the Hispanic community to native Hawaiian/ Paci fic Islander. With such a diverse population, one will find that there are many people with common interest as them. It’s fair to say that at private university like Lake Forest is home to less students, but it’s quite diverse as well. Like ASU, Lake Forest has more students with

The Blue Planet - 842 Words

Marine, the word gives us the meaning of produced by the sea. Marinus is the Latin name of marine from which it is originated. A habitat is a place where communities of organisms live, in such a way that one habitat is recognizably the same for that type but equally recognizably different from another type, like forest differs from pasture, which differs from savannah, which differs from tundra. About 70% of our planet is covered with water. Earth has been nicknamed â€Å"the blue planet† because it looks blue from space. About 96% of this water is marine, or salt water, made up of the oceans covering the Earth. Within these oceans, there are many different types of habitat, or environments in which plants and animals live, ranging from freezing polar ice to tropical coral reefs. These habitats all come with their unique challenges and are inhabited by a wide variety of organisms. Millions of different marine habitats are found till date in the deepest parts of the oceans. [1] In recent years quite a lot of confusion has been propagated about biodiversity and habitats, to the extent that we now firmly believe that we must protect every possible habitat in order to protect biodiversity. But this is not true. Biodiversity and habitats live purely in human minds, and not out there in nature where one encounters only communities. Every community (or habitat as we believe) is made up of species that are also members of other communities (habitats). For instance, a tube worm normallyShow MoreRelatedThe Ideal Weight Of The Stone Essay1654 Words   |  7 Pagesastrology, there are nine planets and all of them play significant role in the life of a human being. Therefore, in order to achieve the positive results which are being offered by these extremely efficient planets, a person can adopt different gemstones as per their association with their corresponding planet. Precisely, there are nine gemstones in correspondence with nine planets and each of them carries special characteristics to offer to the ascendants of their respective planets. However, in orderRead MoreEssay on Gravitation Lab860 Words   |  4 Pagesthe tape measure and the grid. 2. Click the radio button for 4 objects and run the simulation until the purple planet (body 2) has made one complete orbit (one year). 3. After the first orbit (year), turn off the traces (show traces box) and watch another orbit (year) of the purple planet (body 2). Question One: Is blue moon (body 3) circling the yellow sun (body 1) or the purple planet (body 2)? Explain your answer. Using the trojan asteroids setting it looks like all 3 bodys are orbiting theRead MoreThe Blicentian Planet Essay683 Words   |  3 PagesWhen two planets collide, they formed Blicentia. In outer space laid planet Bluce and planet Cential. Bluce and Celtial were planets that did not conatin any human life. Bluce was a planet that was all blue and was made out of ice. Cential was a ball of fire. It was red colored and looked like the sun. People from the so called â€Å"Earth† believed that these planets were a threat to them. They thought that if the planets ever got near Earth it would be the end of the â€Å"Green Planet.† However, that wasRead MoreBenefits Of A Deciduous Forest1660 Words   |  7 PagesForests† Blue Planet Biomes), most of Europe, a few countries in eastern Asia (â€Å"Deciduous Forests† Blue Planet Biomes), northeast Australia (Hurtig, 6), South America. The major countries where the deciduous are located are in the United States of A merica (Hurtig, 6), United Kingdom (Hurtig, 7) Tasmania (Hurtig, 7) ,southwest Russia (â€Å"Encyclopedia of Biomes†, 85), Jagrampan (â€Å"Encyclopedia of Biomes†, 84), eastern China (â€Å"Encyclopedia of Biomes†, 85), southern Chile (â€Å"Deciduous Forest† Blue Planet Biomes)Read MoreThe Pale Blue Dot, By Carl Sagan951 Words   |  4 Pagestown, city, or home that he or she is currently residing. But what about the thought of planet Earth being called home? Earth is a place that humanity has inhabited for centuries, and yet it is very rarely thought of as home in the human mind. Carl Sagan gives a speech, discussing his thoughts on the ways of humans and Earth in a video titled â€Å"The Pale Blue Dot.† The video displays a variety of images of planets and the universe around them, helping the viewer grasp the concept of the message thatRead MoreSimilarities Between The Inner And Outer Planets935 Words   |  4 Pagesand Outer planets. Our so lar system is comprised of the Sun being in the middle, then followed by planets rotating it. The planets which orbit the Sun are Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. The Inner planets are very different from Outer planets and the Outer planets are completely different from Inner planets, but both are very similar in many ways. Our planets in the solar system have many similarities and differences. First of all, Inner planets are differentRead MoreDefining the Blues with Symbolism Essay649 Words   |  3 Pageswhat fills up our bathtubs. We also learn that the color of these two examples is â€Å"blue.† In the Merriam-Webster’s School Dictionary, one of the first definitions of â€Å"blue† is stated as â€Å"The color of the clear daytime sky: a color lying between green and violet in the spectrum.† Even though the definition provided for the word â€Å"blue† contains examples, we are easily able to interpret the meaning of the word â€Å"blue† because of what we were taught growing up. As children begin to mature, their vocabularyRead MoreEssay about Solar System1580 Words   |  7 PagesSolar System Humans live on a small planet in a tiny part of a vast universe. This part of the universe is called the solar system, and is dominated by a single brilliant star-the sun. The solar system is the earth’s neighbourhood and the planets Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto are the Earth’s neighbours. They all have the same stars in the sky and orbit the same sun. Scientists believe the solar system began about 5 billion years ago, perhaps when a nearbyRead MoreEl Niï ¿ ½os Research Paper897 Words   |  4 Pagesyellows, oranges and reds. The Mid-West are around normal temperatures, while the southern portion of the U.S. including California are cooler than normal. This is shown by the light greens and blues. Discussing El Nià ±os of the past, â€Å"The famous 1982-1983 El Nià ±o was one of the worst on record† (Blue Planet, 2017, para. 3). During this event, the sea surface temperatures raised to an unbelievable 9-18 degrees Fahrenheit above the normal, located over the eastern tropical Pacific Ocean (National GeographicRead MoreNegative Effects Of Rain In America784 Words   |  4 Pagestemperatures associated with different El Nià ±o events, and what to expect across the United States. (Source: National Weather Service – NOAA, 2017) Discussing El Nià ±o’s of the past, â€Å"The famous 1982-1983 El Nià ±o was one of the worst on record† (Blue Planet, 2017, para. 3). During this event, the sea surface temperatures raised to an unbelievable 9-18 degrees Fahrenheit above the ordinary, located over the eastern tropical Pacific Ocean (National Geographic, 2017). This caused numerous complications

Decades Have Witnessed an Acceleration of Economic Globalisation Free Essays

string(167) " points made above it’s essential to consider the theories of international trade, as comparative advantage is an important concept for explaining pattern of trade\." ‘Recent decades have witnessed an acceleration of economic globalisation, in particular international trade. Is trade openness the key strategy to achieve economic development? What lessons could you draw for policymaking? Support your arguments with economic theory and empirical evidence from developing countries’. Introduction In this essay, I shall critically examine the statement put forward – and test whether trade openness is the key strategy to achieving economic development, and from this consider whether we can conduct further analysis upon whether there are any lessons that can be obtained from this in regards to policy making. We will write a custom essay sample on Decades Have Witnessed an Acceleration of Economic Globalisation or any similar topic only for you Order Now To focus our discussion; using relevant empirical evidence, I will relate this essay primarily towards developing countries, enabling us to gain a clear understanding of the task at hand. It is of importance that we first briefly explore how the literature define and pursue globalisation; this is done in the next section. The remainder of the essay will be dedicated on segments on economic theory of international trade, the relationship between trade openness and economic growth, we will then draw upon empirical evidence, the negatives of trade openness, and lessons for policy making. Finally I will offer my concluding remarks. Before delving into the core aspect of the essay, it’s essential to consider the underlying reason towards trade liberalisation in international trade; globalisation and also provide a definition of trade openness. Globalisation can be considered as an important rhetoric of contemporary international relations. The term globalisation is often invoked to describe the process of increasing interdependence and global enmeshment through a variety of economic, cultural, social and, political changes that have shaped the world over the past five decades. Hurrell Woods, 1995; Guttal, 2007) Globalisation is considered a form of capitalist expansion that entails the integration of local and national economies into a global, unregulated market economy through an increase in international trade by increases in exports and imports of nations which has been widely regarded as being facilitated by international trade agreements post world-war II. The extent of integration is outlined in table 1 where we can see that there has been increase in the ratio of trade to gross domestic product (GDP) when integration had been apparent from 1870 up until 1914 the eve of World-War I. Integration was halted during the periods of the two world wars and the era of the Great Depression. During this period protectionism was rife, which saw the integration of trade and foreign asset ownership revert back close to their levels in 1870. (Dollar, 2005) Table 1: Measures of Global integration Adapted from Dollar (2005) Table 1: Measures of Global integration Adapted from Dollar (2005) In recent decades there have been various literatures invoking continuous debate discussing whether there is positive correlation between economic growth and trade openness. Advocates thoroughly support that trade liberalisation induces an increase in economic growth; whilst critics hold that protectionism is the essence to increased economic growth. The WTO (World Trade Organisation) and GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) have shaped and influenced the integration of global markets through much debate, discussion and reciprocation, agreements have been established, aiming to promote the vision and objective of trade openness by lowering barriers to trade. Developing countries have been primarily on the agenda throughout the history of the GATT and WTO in order to promote development in these countries as WTO’s Mike Moore as cited in Rodrik (2001) puts it, â€Å"the surest way to do more to help the poor is to continue to open markets. † Trade Liberalisation Paradigm Vs. Protectionism Paradigm â€Å"More open and outward- oriented economies consistently outperform countries with restrictive trade and [foreign] investment regimes. † OECD (1998, pp. 6, cited in Rodriguez Rodrik,1999) â€Å"Policies toward foreign trade are among the more important factors promoting economic growth and convergence in developing countries. † IMF (1997, pp. 84, cited in Rodriguez Rodrik, 1999) Despite such claims, historically during the 1960s, and 1970s although the GATT aided the reduction of trade barriers, it was apparent that many developing nations continued to venture in the protectionist perspective to facilitate in dri ving economic growth. Nations in Latin America and in some African and Asian nations embraced the idea of f Import Substitution Industrialization (ISI). ISI refers to a trade and economic policy based on the premise that a developing country should attempt to substitute products which it imports (mostly finished goods) with locally produced substitutes. This often times involves government subsidies, high tariff barriers and/or artificially maintained domestic currencies to protect local industries. (Kulkarni and Meister, 2009) Economic authors such as Trebilcock and Howse (1999) hold that their reasoning for adopting such an approach to international trade is that with trade liberalisation protectionist tariffs would have to be reduced, which would in turn hurt domestic production as imports would be considered more attractive than domestic; therefore affecting the long run economic growth of their nation. â€Å"tariffs on industrial products have fallen steeply and now average less than 5% in industrial countries. During the first 25 years after the war, world economic growth averaged about 5% per year, a high rate that was partly the result of lower trade barriers. World trade grew even faster, averaging about 28% during the period. † (Rivera and Olivia, 2004, p. 78) It’s apparent by data presented by Rivera and Oliva (2004) and linked with data available in table 1 that since after the world war policies adopted to ensure unrestricted flow of products and services consequently lead to global competition and innovation which benefits all involved. Krugman (1986) further elaborates that with such trade liberalisation that there are a number of key benefits. Firstly, due to economies of scale enjoyed by nations, economies are able to gain from their comparative advantage. Secondly, there is a rise in intra-industry trade, increasing product differentiation enabling consumer satisfaction to be increased. Finally as Porter (1990) establishes, trade liberalisation ensures nations adopt sound economic policies to increase competitive advantage to ensure foreign investment occurs in their economy. Theoretical Considerations To elaborate on the points made above it’s essential to consider the theories of international trade, as comparative advantage is an important concept for explaining pattern of trade. You read "Decades Have Witnessed an Acceleration of Economic Globalisation" in category "Essay examples" David Ricardo firstly introduces the concept of comparative advantage. It is then well recognized as the Ricardian model. In the neoclassical theory of international trade, Heckscher and Ohlin examine the effect of different factor endowments on international trade. – Theory of Competitive Advantage The basic idea of premise of Ricardo’s model boasts that comparative advantage postulates that a nation will export the goods or services in which it has its greatest comparative advantage and import those in which it has the least comparative advantage. (Ricardo, 1817 cited in Widodo, 2009) For example, it takes less productive inputs to produce clothes in China than in Great Britain. However it takes less productive inputs to produce bread in Great Britain than in China. Given this comparative advantage these China and Great Britain can increase their welfare of consumption by specialising in clothing and bread respectively and trade them. The overall gain from this is that greater economic growth can be attained through the utilisation of other economies comparative advantage. – Factor Endowment theory Coque et al. (2003) furthers the comparative advantage model outlined by Ricardo criticising one area by stating that comparative advantages arise only because international differences in labour productivity. Coque et al. continues by expressing that in the real world, trade also reflects differences in countries’ resources: not only labour, but also other factors of production such as land, capital and mineral resources. The basic premise of this theory is centred that a country will tend to produce relatively more of goods that use its abundant resources intensively. For example, consider two goods and two factors of production (land and labour). The two goods have different factor intensities, that is production of one of the goods use a higher ratio of land to labour than the production of the other. The nation in question has an abundance of land, therefore would specialise in the production of this good which uses land intensively. Husain (2007) identifies that from these free-trade models, countries gain from trade and world output is increased; that the countries will tend to specialise in products that use their resources abundantly; and given identical technologies and production throughout the world, factor prices will equalize across trading countries. By enabling countries to move beyond their production possibility frontiers trade is assumed to stimulate growth by securing capital as well as consumption goods from other parts of the world. Trade thus stimulates economic growth, promotes and rewards those activities in which the country has relative abundance of factors of production. As developing countries poses labour in abundant supply their wages will rise and the majority of the population will be better off compared to no trade scenario. Empirical Evidence Trade liberalisation and growth In regards to the protectionism and trade liberalisation paradigms discussed, a key case study is that of Pakistan. Pakistan’s international trading policy consisted of ensuring a highly protective trade regime until the late 1980s. Tariff rates were excessively high and non-tariff barriers kept competing imports away from the domestic markets. It was only in the 1990s that trade liberalization policies were initiated. During the period of protection the manufacturing and tax revenues grew by less than 5% annually. Once the tariff reforms were adopted manufacturing, revenues and exports have all grown in double digits. This correlation shows that despite the perceived views that protectionism protected the domestic, once policies that promoted trade openness were in place, exports within Pakistan actually increased, due to the comparative advantages they would have held in certain industries. Per Capita GDP Growth Rates, by Country Type, 1990s (%), based on GDP in purchasing power parity terms) Per Capita GDP Growth Rates, by Country Type, 1990s (%), based on GDP in purchasing power parity terms) Figure 1: Per capita GDP Growth Rates by country type in the 1990s Adapted from Dollar (2005) Figure 1: Per capita GDP Growth Rates by country type in the 1990s Adapted from Dollar (2005) Dollar (2005) furthers this argument by presenting evidence from figure 1, which shows three categories; Rich countries (developed industrialised nations), other developing nations (Lack of trade openness) and developing country globalizers (those who have adopted trade openness policy). From the evidence provided it is clear that developing nations that have reformed their trading policies to enable them to become more open have grew substantially than their other developing counterparts who did not. Prabirjit (2007) further adds credence to this discussion by providing empirical evidence on cross-country study of averages and panel regression analysis for a sample of 51 less-developed countries over a uniform time period 1981-2002. Like many other works in this field, the results from this study shows that a country with a higher trade share based on openness tends to experience a higher real growth. Trade liberalisation and inequality Although we’ve been able to provide empirical evidence upon the growth benefits of trade openness, many analysts are legitimately concerned about the effects of trade liberalisation on the distribution of income. Research shows that there’s no evidence of a systematic tendency for inequality to increase when international trade increases. If we consider figure 2, this figure reflects the experiences of more than 100 countries, with changes in trade and changes in inequality measured over periods of at least five years in order to capture long-run relationship between trade and inequality. From the figure 1 we can see that there is no real correlation between changes in trade and changes in inequality. Figure 2: Changes in trade and income inequality Adapted from Dollar and Kraay (2001a) Figure 2: Changes in trade and income inequality Adapted from Dollar and Kraay (2001a) Trade liberalisation and Poverty Reduction One of the most common criticisms of trade liberalization and globalization, particularly in developed countries, is that it drives down wages and exports jobs to low wage economies. As we’ve analysed the combination of increases in growth has little systematic change in inequality, now with such results can we expect to see a reduction in poverty for developing countries. In Malaysia, for example, the average income of the poorest fifth of the population grew at a robust 5. 4% annually. Even in China, where inequality did increase sharply and the income growth rate of the poorest fifth lagged behind average income growth, incomes of the poorest fifth still grew at 3. 8%annually. (Clift and Diehl, 2007) The fraction of the population of these countries living below the $1 a day poverty threshold fell sharply between the 1980s and the 1990s: from 43%to 36% in Bangladesh, from 20% to 15% in China, and from 13% to 10% in Costa Rica. Dollar and Kraay (2002) and Ravallion (2001) support the hypothesis that mean incomes of the poor rise and poverty rates decline with the rise in overall mean incomes. But state reliance on cross – country evidence to make inferences about specific instance is not helpful. Apparent factors which impair the effects of trade liberalisation Nugent (2002) identifies factors which affect the effects of trade openness for example a trade liberalization program may have been well-designed but initiated at the wrong time. Arguments about comparative advantage and gains from trade are more plausible when real world conditions approximate those of the theoretical models used to justify them, namely, equilibrium at full employment. Yet, it was during the extremely turbulent and depression-like conditions of the mid-to-late 1980s and early 1990s that most of the Latin American countries and transition economies of Central and Eastern Europe initiated their trade liberalization programs. Nugent states that one problem is that in such turbulent circumstances, often before stabilisation has been achieved and when both inflation rates and relative prices are very volatile, the price signals exerted by the trade liberalization measures may be either misleading or too noisy to have the â€Å"right† effects on resource allocation. This can be an argument for delaying trade liberalization until after stabilization can be achieved. But, if trade liberalization is delayed, it may mean that the stabilization programs that help raise the prospects for future growth and stimulate investments will do so in the â€Å"wrong sectors†. Yet, the currency depreciation required to offset reductions in tariff equivalents may also trigger inflation. Clearly, there are tradeoffs and problems inherent in these inevitable interdependencies. But, whether, stabilisation occurs before, after or simultaneously with trade liberalization (if at all), it suggests that the need for a well-articulated, coherent and credible program is even greater than would be the case if trade liberalization was to start from a stable, full employment economy. A second problem in which Nugent (2002) identifies is that trade liberalization, and capital market liberalization, is likely to increase the vulnerability of the economy to new kinds of shocks. These shocks can easily be very challenging to policy makers and make it even harder to stick with reforms. Both Chile of the 1970s and Mexico of the mid-1990s were heavily indebted and then buffeted by unexpected shocks in the form of higher interest rates in the US. Indeed, some analysts blame the setbacks of Mexico and Chile in their trade liberalization programs simply to bad luck. Even if this is not entirely true, it is quite true that even if the trade liberalization programs had been well-designed for normal condition over time, they may not have been sufficiently well designed to also withstand the severe external shocks that may be more likely to come in a liberalized economy. Lessons for Policy Makers The weight of evidence suggests that openness to trade is good for growth and that growth benefits the poor. But to enjoy the full benefits of trade liberalization, McCulloch et. al. 2011) state it should be accompanied by sound policies in areas such as transport and communications infrastructure, market facilitation, competition, education and governance. In order to boost the competitive advantage qualities of the environment – subsequently increasing investment within the nation. McCulloch et al (2011) further state that trade liberalization can change the nature of the risk and uncertainty that poor households face although not always for the wo rse. It can also affect their ability to cope with risk and uncertainty. Policies such as improving access to credit markets can help a great deal here along with improvements in asset distribution and in the flexibility of local labour markets. Conclusion In essence to conclude, in comparison to protectionist international trade policies, from empirical evidence presented trade openness as a whole can be considered as a key strategy to achieve economic development, as we have been able to witness an increase of imports for developing nations which in turn increases efficiency and reduces costs, which can be considered more effective than import substitution policies. However as established in this paper, there are various factors in which can affect the effectiveness of trade liberalisation policies, which policy makers must take into consideration. References Clift, J. and Diehl, E. (2007) Financial Globalization: A compilation of articles from Finance Development Washington, D. C. : International Monetary Fund Dollar, D. , 2005, Globalization, Poverty, and Inequality since 1980, World Bank Research Observer, 20 (2): 145-175 Dollar, D. Kraay, A. (2002)   Growth Is Good for the Poor  Journal of Economic Growth, Springer, vol. 7(3), pages 195-225, September. Guttal, S. (2007) Globalisation Development in Practice, Vol. 17, No. 4/5, pp. 523-531 Hurrell, A. and Woods, N. (1995) Globalisation and Inequality, Millennium 24(3): 447–70. Husain, I. (2007) TRADE LIBERALIZATION, ECONOMIC GROWTH AND POVERTY REDUCTION RECENT EVIDENCE FROM PAKISTAN National level seminar on Trade and Economic Growth Linkages, Quai d-e-Azam University at Islamabad. Jose Garcia, M. Coque, A. (2003) Trade and Domestic Policies in Open Economy Available at: www. napcsyr. org/†¦ /tm_trade_domestic_policies_in_open_economy_en. pdf Khan, A. H. , Malik, A. and Hasan, A. H. 1995) Exports, Growth and Causality Pakistan Development Review 34(4): 1001-1012 Krugman, P. (1986) Strategic Trade Policy and the New International Economics MIT Kulkarni, K and Meister, K. P. (2009) Trouble with Import Substitution and Protectionism: A Case of Indian Economy McCulloch NA, Winters LA and Cirera X (2001) Trade Liberalization and Poverty: A Handbook London, Centre for Economi c and Policy Research Nugent, J. B. , (2002) Trade Liberalization: Winners and Losers, Success and Failures, Implications for SMEs Forum Series on the Role of Institutions in Promoting Economic Growth, Washington, D. C. Porter, M. E. (1990) The competitive advantage of nations: with a new introduction Free Press,  New York Prabirjit, P. (2007) Trade Openness and Growth: Is There Any Link? MPRA Paper  4997, University Library of Munich, Germany. Ravallion, M. (2001) Growth, Inequality and Poverty: Looking Beyond Averages World Development, 29(11), 1803-1815. Rivera-Batiz, L. A. Oliva, M. A. (2004) International trade: Theories, strategies and evidence. London: Oxford University Press. Rodrik, D, (2001). The Global Governance of Trade As If Development Really Mattered. Background Paper. New York. United Nations Development Programme. Rodriguez, F. Rodrik, D. (1999) Trade Policy and Economic Growth: A Skepticaâ‚ ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s Guide to The Cross-National Evidence. In Bernanke, B. S. and Rogoff, K. (Eds. ), NBER Macroeconomics Annua, 2000 (pp. 325-336). London: The MIT Press. Trebilcock,  M. J. and Howse,  R. (1999) The Regulation of International Trade  London: Routledge Widodo, T. (2009) Comparative Advantage: Theory, Empirical Measures And Case Studies  Review of Economic and Business Studies, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University, Faculty of Economics and Business Administration, issue 4, pages 57-82, November. How to cite Decades Have Witnessed an Acceleration of Economic Globalisation, Essay examples

Comparison Of Different Models (Waterfall - Spiral And Concurrent)

Question: Compare and contrast the waterfall, spiral, and concurrent models. Determine which model is most appropriate for start-up, medium, and large organization. Evaluate of each software process model. Answer: Introduction This particular assignment focuses on analyzing different software development model such as waterfall model, spiral model, concurrent model, etc. However, this study demonstrates the comparison and contrast between above mentioned three models. Moreover, this report also determines the most appropriate model based on the working types of organizations. Finally evaluations of the models are done for deeper understanding. Comparison of Different Models (Waterfall, Spiral and Concurrent) 1. Waterfall model Waterfall model is the oldest software design model and is often termed as the classical approach. Waterfall model is linear and sequential (Alshamrani Bahattab, 2015). Each level represents a complete step, and the final product is obtained after completion of all the steps. 2. Spiral method The spiral method is one of the most used SDLC processes in industry. The spiral method is an iterative development process in which the steps are followed iteratively to reach the outcome decided by (Shukla Saxena, 2013). 3. Concurrent model Concurrent development model also known as concurrent engineering is a series of framework activities involving software engineering tasks and associated states (Highsmith, 2013). This model is best suited for software that is large and depends on multiple teams for its development. Comparison between the three models: Waterfall model Spiral model Concurrent model Model sequence Linear Continuous Sequential Iterative enhancement Understandability Simple Moderate Complex Testing After completion Continuous Continuous Development phases Previous phase should be completed before moving to next phase. Independent phases Phases depend upon each other. Connection between phases No connection Cyclic Interconnected Manageability Easy Moderate Difficult Model rigidity Very high Moderate Extremely flexible Human resource requirement Low Moderate High The above table gives the general overview about the three software model. The comparison shows the advantages and disadvantages of the models over each other. The waterfall model is simpler to understand and is easily manageable compared to other two models but fail to provide the adaptability offered by other two methods. The sequential nature of the spiral and concurrent model is the reason for adaptability. Spiral model updation is done after completion of each phase and finally user update is taken for final update. In concurrent model the phases are interdependent hence update in one phase alters the output for other system, hence making it complex for implementation and need of specialized human resources. Determination of Models for Different Businesses The various business models like start-up, medium and large have different software requirements. Start-up firms have specific requirements like low cost, fast delivery, small and precise needs, and simplicity (Jaspers Hak, 2014). The waterfall model is easier to understand and implement, it is cost efficient and fast with smaller requirements. Hence, waterfall model of software development is the best-suited model for start-up enterprises. Medium enterprises, have necessary capital for development of software. The demands of these companies do change due to expansion; hence the need revolves around better serviceability, lesser risk and faster deliverables (Park Kwag Bae, 2016). The spiral method of SDLC satisfies all the criteria like better serviceability, lower risks and faster delivery with involved costs. So the best-suited software development model for this purpose is the spiral method. Large organizations have greater needs and can hire a better workforce for software development. Hence the best model for such organization is the concurrent development model (Pierce Davis, 2015). The concurrent model is complex and needs a large workforce for its completion; also the product development is faster and is easily adaptable. Therefore the concurrent model is best suited for large enterprises. Evaluation of each Software Model There are various software development models that satisfies different user requirement. The three models are evaluated here for deeper understanding. 1. Waterfall model The model which is oldest of all is linear and sequential. The various steps that are involved in the SDLC are the analysis of requirement, design, coding and development, testing, operation and maintenance (Balaji Murugaiyan, 2012). Each level represents a complete step, and the final product is obtained after completion of all the steps. Hence reviewing and verification is done at each phase before proceeding to another (Alshamrani Bahattab, 2015). The waterfall model can be seen in the following diagram. Figure1: Represents the waterfall model (Source: McCormick, 2012, pp. 5) 2. Spiral model Spiral model is the most used SDLC model in industry. The spiral method is an iterative development process in which the four steps namely, identification, design, construction and evaluation is done iteratively to reach the outcome. This method is very costly as the product life cycle takes high time for implementation (Alshamrani Bahattab, 2015). Also, the product is developed over time to meet new requirements and hence is most versatile SDLC method. The figure below shows the diagrammatic representation of the spiral method. Figure 2: Spiral SDLC method (Source: Shukla Saxena, 2013, pp.1) 3. Concurrent model The concurrent model is one of the most advanced models and is most adaptable. In this model user interaction is possible while tasks are running. Since the processes are independent long running processes dont delay the short running processes. The independent processes leads to parallelism hence ensure maximum utilization of resources. The other disadvantage apart from the above is controllability. The disadvantages of the model are system stability, liveness i.e. always active, non determinism and high resource consumption. The model diagram is shown below: Figure 3: Concurrent model diagram (Source: Hansen, 2013, pp. 259) The figure shows the high resource requirement of the model and high model complexity. Conclusion Every organization has different requirements, the deliverables and some resources decide the course of action for software development. The reviewed models were waterfall model, spiral model and concurrent model. The models were compared and contrasted for a better understanding. Further suitable development model was suggested for a start-up, medium and large organization based on the knowledge. Based on the advantages waterfall model was recommended for start-up businesses, the spiral method of modeling was suggested for medium business, and concurrent method was proposed for large business. Reference Abdullah, D. (2015). Digital Library Information System Development at Malikussaleh University with SDLC (System Development Life Cycle).International Journal of Computing and Technology-IJCAT,2(7), 232-239. Alshamrani, A., Bahattab, A. (2015). A Comparison Between Three SDLC Models Waterfall Model, Spiral Model, and Incremental/Iterative Model.International Journal of Computer Science Issues (IJCSI),12(1), 106. Balaji, S., Murugaiyan, M. S. (2012). Waterfall vs. V-Model vs. Agile: A comparative study on SDLC.International Journal of Information Technology and Business Management,2(1), 26-30. Hansen, P. B. (Ed.). (2013).The origin of concurrent programming: from semaphores to remote procedure calls. Springer Science Business Media. Highsmith, J. (2013).Adaptive software development: a collaborative approach to managing complex systems. Addison-Wesley. Jaspers, F., Hak, T. (2014). STARTUP BUSINESS MODELING: A LONGITUDINAL STUDY (INTERACTIVE PAPER).Frontiers of Entrepreneurship Research,34(4), 14 McCormick, M. (2012). Waterfall vs. Agile Methodology.Retrieved February 12, 2014. Park, E. Y., Kwag, D. G., Bae, S. U. (2016). A Study on the Market Competitiveness of Small-to-Medium Sized Businesses Utilizing CBMI (Convergence Business Model Innovation).Indian Journal of Science and Technology,9(26). Pierce, R. D., Davis, M. A. (2015).U.S. Patent No. 9,069,820. Washington, DC: U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. Shukla, A. K., Saxena, A. (2013). Which Model is best for the Software Project?" A Comparative Analysis of Software Engineering Models".International Journal of Computer Applications,76(11).